Who is at risk for the development of kidney stones?
- Kidney stones affect 12% of the world’s population. The average prevalence of kidney stones in the United States has increased and is approximately 11% in men and 7% in women, with an overall prevalence of 9%.
- The lifetime risk for kidney stones is 19% in men and 9% in women. The yearly cost of kidney stone disease in the United States is $2.5 to $5.5 billion.
- Fifty percent of patients with kidney stones have a recurrence within 5 to 10 years. Stones occur most often between 30 and 60 years of age, and occur in Caucasians more than in other ethnicities.
- Women have had more stones in recent years, possibly related to increased age, fast food consumption (high in protein and salt), increased calories, decreased physical activity, and increased obesity.
- The Women’s Health Initiative data suggest that estrogen hormone replacement therapy increases the risk of nephrolithiasis in healthy postmenopausal women.
- Risks for stones include a family history of stones, obesity, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, medullary sponge kidney, renal tubular acidosis, urine volume < 2 L/day, dietary calcium < 1000 mg/day, dietary sodium > 2 g/day, low water intake, high animal protein, and high intake of sugar-sweetened sodas
